The practice of magic is widely used by individuals and gods in Greece to obtain their desires. So much so, that Greece can be described as a religiously homogeneous society because magic has saturated the attitudes and beliefs of all levels of society in Greek life (Pilinovsky). Religion enters the equation because it is "a system of thought, feeling, and action that is shared by a group and that gives the members an object of devotion" (encyclopedia.com). Magic has so saturated Greek society that the two have become one, "a religiously homogeneous society." But, what is magic? Many do not understand what encompasses the world of magic.

It is alleged that the origins of magic comes from Zoroaster in Persia and then made its way into Greece. Lynn Thorndike has done a large amount of research on Pliny, just one from the trio of great names from the Roman Empire, who engages in politics, literature, and natural science (39). Thorndike is quoted as saying that "[Pliny] regards the Osthanes who accompanied Xerxes as the prime introducer of magic to the Greek-speaking world, which straightway went mad over it" (58).

Magic can be defined as the "practice of manipulating and controlling the course of nature by preternatural means" (encyclopedia.com). It is widely believed that the gods control the forces and spirits in our realm that preside over nature. As humans, we have a tendency to want to have control over nature. The practice of magic is supposed to give humans this power they desire (encyclopedia.com). We seek the god's approval through worship and sacrifice, hoping that they will give us our desires. On one side we rely on the gods by placing our trust in them, and on the other we try to bind them with our own magic (Romilly 12). But, of course, the gods will use magic to achieve their own ends as well.

Several things fall under the category of magic: katadesmoi, spells, incantations, kolossos, and witches.

One source, Jacqueline de Romilly, asserts that the power of poetry is considered magic because it is from poetry that we learn about magic. "When dealing with the power of poetry, we saw that this power was in fact considered as magic. It was irrational, it came from the gods, it was a charm." There exist a number of magic formulas that have been written on tablets (11). These tablets are known as katadesmoi, which are "inscribed pieces of lead, usually in form of thin tin sheets, intended to bring supernatural power to bear against persons and animals" (Carswell). These cursing and binding tablets are thought to be the invention of Greeks. Initially, the tablets only contained the name of the victim. However, later tablets include text as well (Bohak). Other known materials used for inscription are gemstones, papyrus, stone, pottery, and wax (Carswell). Another important facet of magic is spells.

Spells are words that are said to have magical powers (encyclopedia.com). It is believed that when these spells are uttered or written, they can have control over people and spiritual forces. Incantations are incorporated into a spell. They are "a set formula, spoken or sung, for the purpose of working magic" (encyclopedia.com). Many spells were used on the katadesmoi in the forms of binding or curses.
One type of katadesmoi is a kolossos, a Greek poppet or effigy. A kolossos is used primarily as a defensive mechanism, rather than a hostile offensive. They may appear as a "doll", but they can also be flattened so it is easier to write spells and names. The figure does not have to appear realistic, as there are other means to make it connect with the person it is meant to resemble. Their name may be written on it, or something from their person may be used. Such as, a fingernail, lock of hair, or clothing (MacLennan).

Once the kolossos is fashioned, a binding formula is created. This formula can either be written on the kolossos or spoken out loud. If the spell is spoken instead of written, a ritual of mutilation or piercing usually accompanies it. When the binding is complete, the kolossos is typically ritually destroyed or buried (MacLennan).

A common type of spell is done in the name of love. Men cast spells to torture women into sexual surrender and the women cast spells to make men more affectionate or to keep him from straying (Faraone). Typically, pharmakis, or witches, cast spells and practice magic (Grimassi).

A witch is a practitioner of witchcraft and is very skilled in magical arts. Their rituals, charms, and spells can be used in the form of good or evil (witches.net).

There are several witches that are well known in Greece. First and foremost would be the goddess, Hecate. Due to her connections with the Underworld, she lost her positive associations with good and became associated with fear. In her old age, she became known as a witch (Harris and Platzner 292). Harry Thurston Peck describes Hecate as a goddess who "lent powerful aid to all magical incantations and witches' work. All enchanters and enchantresses were her disciples and protégés."

Hecate's powers played a large role in the life of Jason, the son of Aeson of Iolcos, leader of the Argonauts. Jason performed rituals to honor Hecate and it is through her power that Jason is able to steal the Golden Fleece and escape afterward (Harris and Platzner 292).

Jason also receives aid from Hecate through another witch, Medea. Medea is known for casting spells and using potions. We first learn of her association with magic when she gives Jason a potion that will protect him from a fire-breathing bull. Medea helps Jason again when she casts a spell on the serpent or dragon guarding the tree on which the Golden Fleece is hung; her spell put the creature to sleep so Jason could retrieve the Golden Fleece (Harris and Platzner 291). All of this she did to obtain Jason as her husband.

Another witch or sorceress is Circe, who is famous for her skill in magic arts and subtle potions (Peck). We know Circe best from the part she played in Homer's Odyssey. Circe turned Odysseus' men into pigs when they drank from a cup containing a potion (Peck). Circe's island was full of beasts that had once been men before drinking from the same cup. However, when Odysseus went to save his men, Hermes gave him an antidote that would keep him from falling prey to Circe's potion that turned men into swine (Peck).

While Hecate, Medea, and Circe appear to be on the dark side of magic, they use magic just as others do, to reach their desired goal. Mortals and gods alike are dependent upon the world of magic and spells. Without it we would not be able to get help, rid ourselves of evil, or attain our greatest desires.

Works Cited

Bohak, Gideon. Traditions of Magic in Late Antiquity: Aggressive Magic. University of Michigan Library. 18 March 2004 <http://www.lib.umich.edu/pap/magic/agg.html>.

Carswell, Caleb. Curse Tablets and Binding Spells in the Ancient World. The Land of Caleb. 17 March 2004 <http://plaza.ufl.edu/caleb98/bindingspells.html>.

De Romilly, Jacqueline. Magic and Rhetoric in Ancient Greece. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975.

Encyclopedia.com. HighBeam Research, LLC. 21 March 2004 <http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/m1/magic.asp>.

Faraone, Christopher A. Ancient Greek Love Magic. Harvard University Press. 16 March 2004 <http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/FARANC.html>.

Grimassi, Raven. How The Witch Became Maligned. Echoed Voices Online Magazine. 20 March 2004 <http://www.echoedvoices.org/Sep2001/SeptHowWitch.html>.

Harris, Stephen L. and Gloria Platzner. Classical Mythology Images & Insights. Mountain View: Mayfield Publishing Company, 2001.

History of Witches. Witches.net. 19 March 2004 <http://www.witches.net/historyofwitches.htm>.

MacLennan, Bruce. Construction and Use of Ancient Greek Poppets. University of Tennessee. 18 March 2004 <http://www.cs.utk.edu/~maclennan/BA/GP.html>.

Peck, Harry Thurston. Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898). The Perseus Digital Library. 16 March 2004 <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0062%3Aid%3Dhecate>.

Pilinovsky, Helen. Studies of Magic in Ancient Greece. The Endicott Studio. 21 March 2004 <http://www.endicott-studio.com/forgreek.html>.

Thorndike, Lynn. History of Magic and Experimental Science. New York: Columbia University Press, 1923.